The Effects of Feedback Interventions on Performance: A Historical Review, a Meta-Analysis, and a Preliminary Feedback Intervention Theory
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. · 1996
grade Cmeta-analysisindependentreplicatednumbers spot-checked
Sample
131 papers / 607 effect sizes / 23,663 observations
Population
Mostly lab/adult performance tasks; limited K-12.
Design
Foundational feedback meta with double-coded moderators. Mostly immediate researcher-designed task performance; no standardized-achievement or long-term data.
Key findings
The field's foundational corrective: feedback helps on average (d=0.41) but MORE THAN A THIRD of effects are negative — the only major method with a stable backfire rate. The 30-year-stable moderator structure: cues carrying TASK information help (correct solution, progress-over-time); cues directing attention to the SELF hurt (praise 0.09, discouragement -0.14, ego threat 0.08). More frequent feedback showed no benefit.
Genetic confound
Experimental within-task designs; the self-esteem-threat moderation implies interaction with stable person traits.
Replication notes
Headline 0.41 and >38%-negative verified from full text; moderator sub-tables consistent with widely-cited values but not line-verified. Moderator structure replicated by Wisniewski 2020.
DOI / URL
10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.254
Effects
| Outcome | Metric | Value | Measure | Timing | Vs | Horizon | Class |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall performance from feedback interventions | d | 0.41; >38% of 607 effects NEGATIVE | researcher-designed | immediate | business-as-usual | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
| Correct-solution information present vs absent | d | 0.43 vs 0.25 | researcher-designed | immediate | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
| Change-from-prior-trials (velocity) info | d | 0.55 vs 0.28 | researcher-designed | immediate | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
| Praise cues present vs absent | d | 0.09 vs 0.34 | researcher-designed | immediate | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
| Discouraging feedback | d | -0.14 vs 0.33 | researcher-designed | immediate | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
| High threat to self-esteem (top vs bottom quartile) | d | 0.08 vs 0.47 | researcher-designed | immediate | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
| Very complex tasks (top vs bottom quartile) | d | 0.03 vs 0.55 | researcher-designed | immediate | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
Cited by
- Feedback and formative assessmentmixedconf: highgc: low