When Problem Solving Is Superior to Studying Worked Examples
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J. · 2001
grade Bquasi-experimentindependentreplicated
Sample
Trade apprentices (mechanical/electrical)
Population
Trade apprentices learning technical relay-circuit content; expertise manipulated by training.
Design
The canonical within-study crossover demonstration of expertise reversal in the worked-example paradigm.
Key findings
Direct within-study crossover: worked examples help novices, but the advantage shrinks and REVERSES (problem solving wins) as expertise grows — the worked-out steps become redundant once learners have schemas.
Genetic confound
Interaction is with PRIOR KNOWLEDGE (schema), not ability/g.
Replication notes
Canonical aptitude-treatment interaction for worked examples; replicated in classroom geometry (Bokosmaty 2015).
DOI / URL
10.1037/0022-0663.93.3.579
Effects
| Outcome | Metric | Value | Measure | Timing | Vs | Horizon | Class |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Novices: worked examples vs problem solving | direction | worked examples superior | researcher-designed | immediate; applied | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
| After training (more expert): worked examples vs problem solving | crossover | problem solving becomes superior (expertise-reversal crossover) | researcher-designed | immediate; applied | active-alternative | end-of-treatment | domain-skill |
Cited by
- Worked examples (studying solutions vs solving problems)moderate supportconf: mediumgc: low