Longitudinal Gains in Civic Development through School-Based Required Service

Cohorts within a single high school before and after a service requirement was introduced

Students at one US high school, compared across cohorts subject and not subject to a new graduation service requirement.

Cohort comparison within a single school around the introduction of a service graduation requirement. Campbell 2019 praises it as clean exogenous variation, which it is in the narrow sense - students did not choose the school because of the requirement - but the n is one school, there is no external control, and every outcome is an INTENTION rather than a behaviour.

Among students not already volunteering, the requirement raised stated INTENTIONS to boycott, demonstrate, work on a campaign, volunteer and join civic organisations, and raised reported political discussion and self-rated understanding of political issues. No behavioural outcome was measured and no follow-up into adulthood exists.

Not assessed in detail; see exclusion note.

Points the opposite way to Helms 2013, which uses a statewide mandate and a difference-in-differences design and finds mandated service REDUCING later voluntary participation. Weinschenk and Dawes 2022 find service-learning coursework has no effect on adult turnout under family fixed effects.